Intermittent fasting is an consuming sample the place you alternate between intervals of consuming and forgoing meals.
If that sounds silly, uncomfortable, or unhealthy, I perceive—I assumed the identical factor after I first heard about it years in the past.
It shocked me to be taught, nevertheless, that intermittent fasting will be an efficient instrument for bettering dietary compliance. It has good science on its aspect, too, and it doesn’t need to be disagreeable.
Actually, many individuals, together with hundreds of those that’ve gotten superb outcomes utilizing my books and physique transformation teaching service, take pleasure in intermittent fasting greater than conventional “weight-reduction plan,” as a result of it permits them to have fewer, bigger meals.
That stated, intermittent fasting isn’t some mystical key to optimum health and well being. It gained’t effortlessly rework your physique, evaporate stomach fats, or halt the growing old course of.
What it may possibly do is make your weight loss plan simpler to comply with and improve your long-term outcomes if you happen to take pleasure in it.
That’s why it’s best to perceive what it’s, the way it works, and the way to use it, which is strictly what you’ll be taught on this article.
What Is Intermittent Fasting (IF)?
Intermittent fasting (or “IF”) is an consuming sample the place you alternate between intervals of consuming and fasting.
Whereas individuals usually discuss with intermittent fasting as a “weight loss plan,” it’s not fully correct to take action.
IF protocols often don’t specify what number of calories it’s best to eat or the steadiness of macronutrients and kinds of meals it’s best to devour. As a substitute, they restrict when you’ll be able to eat, therefore why calling it an “consuming sample” is extra becoming.
Intermittent fasting has gained recognition within the well being and health area as a result of many imagine it has vital well being advantages, together with weight reduction, improved metabolic well being, and probably elevated longevity.
How Does Fasting Work?
In a normal sense, a “quick” is a interval throughout which you abstain from consuming (and typically ingesting), usually for non secular causes.
Within the context of health, fasting isn’t nearly not consuming—it’s about how your physique processes and absorbs meals.
While you eat, your physique breaks down the meals into numerous molecules that enter your bloodstream. The hormone insulin then shuttles these molecules into cells.
When your physique is digesting and absorbing what you’ve eaten, and insulin ranges are nonetheless excessive, your physique is in a fed or postprandial state (“prandial” means having to do with a meal).
As soon as your physique finishes processing and absorbing the vitamins, insulin ranges drop to a minimal (baseline) stage, and your physique enters a “fasted” or postabsorptive state.
The time it takes to succeed in this fasted state depends on the scale and composition of your meal, however usually, you gained’t be actually “fasting” till you haven’t consumed something containing energy for a minimum of six hours.
Standard Intermittent Fasting Protocols
There are numerous approaches to intermittent fasting, however all contain biking between intervals of consuming and never consuming.
Throughout the fasting phases, you devour minimal or no meals, although you’ll be able to drink calorie-free drinks (water, natural tea, or black espresso, for instance).
The next are essentially the most well-known IF strategies:
The 16/8 Methodology
The 16/8 technique is an intermittent fasting protocol the place you quick for 16 hours per day and eat in an 8-hour window.
For most individuals, this implies skipping breakfast and consuming between lunch and dinner. For instance, you may end your dinner at 8 p.m., then not eat once more till 12 p.m. the next day. Right here’s how this might look throughout every week:
A noteworthy variation of the 16/8 protocol is Martin Berkhan’s “Leangains” technique.
Just like the 16/8 method, the Leangains technique has you consuming your entire energy in an 8-hour window and fasting for 16 hours each day.
The distinction is that the Leangains technique contains extra particular tips about macronutrient targets and meal timing (notably round exercises) to maximise muscle achieve.
Particularly, Leangains recommends the next:
- Exercise Timing: Leangains suggests understanding fasted, often close to the tip of your quick, adopted by the most important meal of the day.
- Larger Protein: To maximise muscle progress, you eat a high-protein diet whereas following Leangains.
- Macronutrient Biking: On Leangains you eat extra carbs and energy on exercise days versus relaxation days.
Based mostly on my expertise of serving to hundreds of individuals attain their well being and health objectives and my very own dalliances with fasting, I’ve discovered the 16/8 (or Leangains) technique to be essentially the most sensible fasting protocol for constructing muscle and dropping fats.
The Warrior Weight loss plan
Ori Hofmekler popularized the Warrior Weight loss plan in his e book of the identical title.
It entails consuming one giant night meal in a 4-hour feeding window after which “fasting” for the remaining 20 hours every day.
I say “fasting” since you’re allowed to eat just a few small snacks of protein, fruit, and/or veggies all through the day, which is able to elevate insulin ranges and break the fasted state.
Right here’s how this seems throughout every week:
Moreover, Hofmekler says it’s best to begin your massive meal by consuming greens, after which transfer to protein, after which fat. For those who’re nonetheless hungry after consuming fats, you’ll be able to eat carbs.
The sensible advantage of that is calorie management—you’re much less prone to overeat this manner versus beginning your meal with a swan dive right into a bowl of scrumptious carbs.
Typically talking, I’m not a fan of the Warrior Weight loss plan.
Whereas it may possibly work for individuals who solely wish to eat once per day, most individuals discover that it makes coaching tough, managing starvation difficult, and consuming sufficient protein to maximise muscle progress virtually inconceivable.
The 16/8 or Leangains technique is sort of all the time superior.
Alternate-Day Fasting
Alternate-Day Fasting (ADF) has you alternate between days of “regular” consuming and “fasting.”
(Since every week has an odd variety of days, alternating completely isn’t attainable. Due to this fact, most individuals quick for 3 days and eat usually for 4 days every week.)
On “regular” days, you eat roughly the quantity of power you burn (TDEE). On “fasting” days, you eat 20-to-25% of this quantity (round 500 energy for most individuals).
Right here’s the way it may look throughout every week:
From my expertise, ADF is just appropriate for very obese sedentary individuals. When match, lively of us attempt it, their exercises often undergo, which makes constructing muscle tougher.
The 5:2 Weight loss plan
The 5:2 diet is much like alternate-day fasting, solely as a substitute of fasting on 3 non-consecutive days per week, you quick on 2 non-consecutive days per week.
In your fasting days, you’ll be able to eat a most of 500 energy if you happen to’re a lady, and 600 energy if you happen to’re a person.
Right here’s an instance of the way to schedule it:
The 5:2 weight loss plan can work for individuals with plenty of weight to lose, however it may possibly make coaching and consuming a high-protein weight loss plan more durable, so it’s not ultimate if you wish to maximize muscle progress.
Eat Cease Eat
Eat Cease Eat is an intermittent fasting protocol created by Brad Pilon.
Whereas following Eat Cease Eat:
- You quick for twenty-four hours a couple of times per week on non-consecutive days.
- You can begin your fasts once you like, however they have to go for twenty-four hours. For example, you might cease consuming after your dinner one night, then not eat once more till the identical time the next day. Or, if it fits your schedule higher, you might end your snack one afternoon, then quick till the identical time the next afternoon.
Right here’s how the Eat Cease Eat protocol seems for most individuals:
In contrast to with many of the different standard fasting protocols that contain not consuming for lengthy intervals, you’ll be able to’t have any meals throughout your fasting intervals on Eat Cease Eat.
Due to this, the Eat Cease Eat technique will be robust at first. To make it simpler, Pilon suggests the next:
- Begin by fasting so long as you’ll be able to and steadily work towards the complete 24 hours.
- Begin your quick when you’re busy and on a day the place you haven’t any social obligations that contain consuming.
- Drink loads of water
I sometimes don’t advocate Eat Cease Eat. The lengthy fasts are uncomfortable for most individuals, and plenty of discover they succumb to binge consuming once they’re lastly allowed to eat, which may stymie weight loss.
Like different protocols involving lengthy fasts, it additionally complicates coaching and high-protein weight-reduction plan, which may hinder muscle achieve.
Is Intermittent Fasting Higher for Weight Loss than Conventional Weight-reduction plan?
Research exhibits that almost all intermittent fasting protocols successfully make it easier to lose fats, however this isn’t as a result of fasting is inherently particular for weight reduction.
When studies compare IF diets to common calorie-controlled diets, making certain all of the dieters eat the identical variety of energy and mixture of macronutrients, individuals sometimes lose the identical quantity of fats no matter their consuming schedule.
The actual cause IF generally is a helpful weight reduction instrument is that it helps some individuals create a calorie deficit extra simply by limiting meals consumption to particular hours of the day or sure days of the week.
That stated, not everybody enjoys fasting, particularly over the long run. Studies present the extra it’s a must to change about the way you eat—notably the way you like to eat—the extra dietary compliance suffers and the more serious your outcomes will likely be.
Furthermore, many individuals don’t take effectively to drastically lowering their meal frequency—they expertise uncomfortable ranges of starvation, irritability, and “mind fog.”
Research exhibits that fasting can encourage overeating by growing the “reinforcing worth of meals,” too. Put otherwise, the extra you abstain from consuming (by fasting), the extra worth you’ll be able to place on with the ability to eat, and this may trigger you to eat greater than you’d in any other case.
Studies additionally present that fasting reduces the plasma ranges of the amino acid tryptophan, which your physique requires to provide serotonin (the “pleased hormone”). As serotonin ranges fall, many undesirable signs can come up, together with despair, nervousness, sexual dysfunction, hyperactivity, digestive difficulties, meals cravings, and extra.
Another excuse IF might not be appropriate for everybody is that it may possibly increase the chance of creating dysfunctional consuming habits, notably for these inclined to disordered consuming.
All that’s to say, intermittent fasting isn’t a magic bullet for weight reduction. It’s only a technique of meal planning that may work effectively for individuals who desire it over a standard consuming sample.
However you don’t must quick to shed some pounds. A daily, calorie-controlled weight loss plan is simply as efficient and may higher fit your preferences. For instance, most individuals who be a part of Legion’s body transformation coaching program select an everyday consuming schedule, and there’s no scarcity of “proof” it produces superb outcomes:
Is Intermittent Fasting More healthy Than Conventional Weight-reduction plan?
Most claims referring to improved well being whereas fasting concentrate on two factors: blood glucose (sugar) management and autophagy.
Let’s take a look at every individually.
Blood Sugar Management
Fasting followers argue that consuming a number of instances a day “spikes” blood sugar too often, growing ranges of irritation in your physique and desensitizing your cells to insulin. Over time, this will increase your odds of struggling well being points.
Their answer is to increase intervals of not consuming, thereby retaining blood sugar ranges decrease for longer.
Nevertheless, this reasoning is flawed.
Whereas consuming does increase inflammatory markers in your blood for a short time, these markers don’t keep elevated lengthy sufficient to trigger hurt.
A chic instance of this comes from a study printed in 1975 within the Journal Archives of Inner Drugs through which researchers had overweight women and men eat in a big calorie deficit for greater than a 12 months, getting 90-to-95% of their each day energy from carbs (primarily white rice).
Regardless of the massive spikes in blood sugar, insulin, and inflammatory markers these dieters undoubtedly skilled after each meal, all of their well being metrics (ldl cholesterol, blood stress, fasting glucose ranges, and so forth) dramatically improved throughout the course of the research.
In different phrases, the short-term spikes in inflammatory nasties didn’t hurt their long-term well being. Quite the opposite, their well being tremendously improved as a result of they misplaced fats. And boy did they lose fats:
This research underscores a vital level: the general impact of weight loss plan on physique composition trumps the affect of momentary blood sugar fluctuations. That’s, the tip results of your weight loss plan (weight reduction) issues greater than the short-term results of particular person meals
Train is one other good instance of how short-term results don’t all the time predict long-term outcomes.
While you carry weights, many measures of poor well being, together with elevated inflammation, heart rate, and blood pressure, briefly spike. But, individuals who exercise frequently are often more healthy and stay longer than those that don’t.
Another excuse to doubt fasting zealots’ claims about blood sugar management is that though consuming fewer meals per day causes much less frequent spikes in blood sugar, fasters are inclined to devour extra once they finally eat than individuals who have an everyday meal schedule.
The result’s that whereas fasters expertise fewer small, short-term blood sugar spikes per day, they trigger a lot bigger, longer-lasting spikes once they lastly eat. And that’s why research exhibits that the general affect—the “space underneath the curve”—is analogous irrespective of the way you area out your meals, assuming you eat the identical variety of energy.
This isn’t to say that fasting can’t assist enhance blood sugar management—several studies show it may possibly if it helps you shed some pounds. However there’s no evidence fasting is superior to common calorie-controlled weight-reduction plan for this objective.
So, if you happen to’re weight-reduction plan to take management of your blood sugar, there’s no must quick—comply with whichever consuming sample makes dropping pounds most simple.
Autophagy
The time period autophagy comes from the Greek for “self-eating” and refers back to the physique’s means of cleansing out broken cells and recycling their parts to maintain cells functioning correctly.
Consider it as a mobile housekeeping service, the place the physique clears away particles and repurposes damaged or pointless elements to make sure the whole lot runs easily.
Weight loss plan “gurus” usually declare that fasting uniquely triggers autophagy, which, they are saying, helps fight growing old and promotes longevity.
In actuality, autophagy increases everytime you’re in a calorie deficit. IF helps some individuals preserve a calorie deficit, so it may possibly additionally successfully increase autophagy. However, there’s nothing particular about IF on this regard—sustaining a calorie deficit by any means may have the identical impact.
That’s, an everyday, calorie-controlled weight loss plan triggers autophagy simply in addition to IF.
Nonetheless, some IF fanatics declare there’s proof that fasting particularly will increase longevity.
Crucially, this evidence comes from rodent research. Whereas rodent research can typically present insights into human biology, they’re not notably helpful for learning human longevity, primarily as a result of rodents have a lot shorter lifespans, so a 16-hour quick for them equates to weeks or months for people.
So, if you happen to’re fasting for its supposed longevity advantages, it’s possible you’ll need to rethink. Shedding weight and sustaining a wholesome physique composition—whether or not via IF or common calorie restriction—is the actual ticket to an extended, more healthy life.
(Oh, and there’s plenty of research exhibiting that train additionally will increase autophagy, so if you wish to enhance longevity and also you’re not already lifting weights, it’s excessive time you began.)
Does Intermittent Fasting Trigger Muscle Loss & Hinder Muscle Progress?
Two frequent considerations about IF are that it causes muscle loss and hinders muscle growth.
The logic is straightforward: abnormal weight-reduction plan means that you can eat protein at common intervals, which retains muscle protein synthesis (MPS) charges elevated all through the day, theoretically retaining your “muscle-building equipment” firing.
In distinction, IF entails prolonged intervals with out meals, throughout which MPS charges decline.
Over time, this may make it tougher to construct muscle and will result in muscle loss, or so the speculation goes.
Analysis challenges this line of considering, although.
Two reviews evaluating numerous IF protocols discovered no vital distinction in muscle progress or retention between IF and common weight-reduction plan when dieters consumed ample protein. This means that IF in all probability doesn’t hinder muscle progress or trigger muscle loss so long as you eat a high-protein diet.
One other noteworthy study printed in Weight problems (Silver Spring) cut up 18 obese or overweight males into two teams: a regular-diet group and an intermittent-fasting group.
Each teams maintained a calorie deficit, however the IF group ate inside an eight-hour window, whereas the regular-diet group had a 12-hour feeding window.
The outcomes confirmed that the IF group misplaced considerably extra muscle (~2.2 lb) in comparison with the regular-diet group (~0.4 lb).
This appears regarding, however it’s in all probability much less of a difficulty than it seems because the dieters neither lifted weights nor consumed sufficient protein.
Thus, the actual takeaway is that IF can result in muscle loss if you happen to don’t handle it correctly. However given the opposite information we’ve seen, it’s in all probability not a major situation for individuals who mix IF with common strength training and a high-protein weight loss plan.
Many individuals imagine that going too lengthy with out meals triggers “starvation mode,” a state through which your physique thinks it’s ravenous and quickly shops fats once you lastly eat.
This can be a delusion.
In a single study, basal metabolic rate (BMR) didn’t decline till 60 hours of fasting, and the discount was simply 8%. In different phrases, in case your BMR is 1,800 energy, it could drop to round 1,650 energy when you forgo meals for two and a half days.
Different research exhibits that the metabolism truly accelerates after 36-to-48 hours of fasting. Though this appears counterintuitive, it is sensible from an evolutionary perspective.
For those who haven’t eaten shortly, your physique desires you to search out meals. To inspire you, it floods you with adrenaline and noradrenaline, sharpening your thoughts and, by the way, growing your metabolic fee.
The actual “hunger mode” begins after about 72 hours of not consuming, when muscle becomes the physique’s major power supply. Even then, the physique takes measures to protect muscle due to its important function in keeping us sturdy, purposeful, and immune to illness.
So, don’t fear about fasting ruining your metabolism. No wise intermittent fasting protocol—like those we’ve mentioned—will hurt it.
+ Scientific References
- Surina, D. M., et al. “Meal Composition Affects Postprandial Fatty Acid Oxidation.” American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, vol. 264, no. 6, 1 June 1993, pp. R1065–R1070, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1993.264.6.r1065.
- Seimon, Radhika V., et al. “Do Intermittent Diets Provide Physiological Benefits over Continuous Diets for Weight Loss? A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials.” Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, vol. 418, Dec. 2015, pp. 153–172, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2015.09.014.
- Maruthur, Nisa M, et al. “Effect of Isocaloric, Time-Restricted Eating on Body Weight in Adults with Obesity.” Annals of Internal Medicine, 19 Apr. 2024, https://doi.org/10.7326/m23-3132. Accessed 26 Apr. 2024.
- Templeman, Iain, et al. “A Randomized Controlled Trial to Isolate the Effects of Fasting and Energy Restriction on Weight Loss and Metabolic Health in Lean Adults.” Science Translational Medicine, vol. 13, no. 598, 16 June 2021, stm.sciencemag.org/content/13/598/eabd8034, https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.abd8034.
- Thomas, Elizabeth A., et al. “Early Time‐Restricted Eating Compared with Daily Caloric Restriction: A Randomized Trial in Adults with Obesity.” Obesity, vol. 30, no. 5, 26 Apr. 2022, pp. 1027–1038, https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.23420. Accessed 1 July 2022.
- Liu, Deying, et al. “Calorie Restriction with or without Time-Restricted Eating in Weight Loss.” New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 386, no. 16, 21 Apr. 2022, pp. 1495–1504, https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa2114833.
- Varady, Krista A., et al. “Cardiometabolic Benefits of Intermittent Fasting.” Annual Review of Nutrition, vol. 41, no. 1, 11 Oct. 2021, pp. 333–361, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nutr-052020-041327.
- Cook, Florence , et al. Compliance of Participants Undergoing a “5-2” Intermittent Fasting Diet and Impact on Body Weight. 17 Aug. 2022, pp. P257-261, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2022.08.012.
- Schübel, Ruth, et al. “Effects of Intermittent and Continuous Calorie Restriction on Body Weight and Metabolism over 50 Wk: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 108, no. 5, 1 Nov. 2018, pp. 933–945, academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/108/5/933/5201451, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy196.
- Gibson, Alice, and Amanda Sainsbury. “Strategies to Improve Adherence to Dietary Weight Loss Interventions in Research and Real-World Settings.” Behavioral Sciences, vol. 7, no. 4, 11 July 2017, p. 44, www.mdpi.com/2076-328X/7/3/44, https://doi.org/10.3390/bs7030044.
- Epstein, Leonard H, et al. “Effects of Deprivation on Hedonics and Reinforcing Value of Food.” Physiology & Behavior, vol. 78, no. 2, Feb. 2003, pp. 221–227, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-9384(02)00978-2. Accessed 26 Aug. 2020.
- Cowen, P. J., et al. “Moderate Dieting Causes 5-HT 2C Receptor Supersensitivity.” Psychological Medicine, vol. 26, no. 6, Nov. 1996, pp. 1155–1159, https://doi.org/10.1017/s003329170003587x. Accessed 9 Nov. 2021.
- Stice, Eric, et al. “Fasting Increases Risk for Onset of Binge Eating and Bulimic Pathology: A 5-Year Prospective Study.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, vol. 117, no. 4, 2008, pp. 941–946, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2850570/, https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013644.
- Gregersen, S., et al. “Inflammatory and Oxidative Stress Responses to High-Carbohydrate and High-Fat Meals in Healthy Humans.” Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, vol. 2012, 2012, pp. 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/238056. Accessed 5 Apr. 2019.
- Erridge, Clett, et al. “A High-Fat Meal Induces Low-Grade Endotoxemia: Evidence of a Novel Mechanism of Postprandial Inflammation.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 86, no. 5, 1 Nov. 2007, pp. 1286–1292, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/86.5.1286. Accessed 23 Mar. 2020.
- Kempner, W., et al. “Treatment of Massive Obesity with Rice/Reduction Diet Program. An Analysis of 106 Patients with at Least a 45-Kg Weight Loss.” Archives of Internal Medicine, vol. 135, no. 12, 1 Dec. 1975, pp. 1575–1584, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1200726/.
- da Luz Scheffer, Débora, and Alexandra Latini. “Exercise-Induced Immune System Response: Anti-Inflammatory Status on Peripheral and Central Organs.” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. Molecular Basis of Disease, vol. 1866, no. 10, 29 Apr. 2020, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7188661/, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2020.165823.
- Nystoriak, Matthew A., and Aruni Bhatnagar. “Cardiovascular Effects and Benefits of Exercise.” Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, vol. 5, no. 135, 28 Sept. 2018. National Library of Medicine, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6172294/, https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2018.00135.
- Carpio-Rivera, Elizabeth, et al. “Acute Effects of Exercise on Blood Pressure: A Meta-Analytic Investigation.” Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia, vol. 106, no. 5, 2016, https://doi.org/10.5935/abc.20160064.
- Zaman, Adnin, et al. “The Effects of Early Time Restricted Eating plus Daily Caloric Restriction Compared to Daily Caloric Restriction Alone on Continuous Glucose Levels.” Obesity Science & Practice, 4 Aug. 2023, https://doi.org/10.1002/osp4.702. Accessed 26 Feb. 2024.
- Corley, B. T., et al. “Intermittent Fasting in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and the Risk of Hypoglycaemia: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” Diabetic Medicine, vol. 35, no. 5, 27 Feb. 2018, pp. 588–594, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/dme.13595, https://doi.org/10.1111/dme.13595.
- Harvie, Michelle, et al. “The Effect of Intermittent Energy and Carbohydrate Restriction v. Daily Energy Restriction on Weight Loss and Metabolic Disease Risk Markers in Overweight Women.” British Journal of Nutrition, vol. 110, no. 8, 16 Apr. 2013, pp. 1534–1547, www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition/article/effect-of-intermittent-energy-and-carbohydrate-restriction-v-daily-energy-restriction-on-weight-loss-and-metabolic-disease-risk-markers-in-overweight-women/BC03063A5D8E9446D5090DB083A4B226, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007114513000792.
- Harvie, M N, et al. “The Effects of Intermittent or Continuous Energy Restriction on Weight Loss and Metabolic Disease Risk Markers: A Randomized Trial in Young Overweight Women.” International Journal of Obesity, vol. 35, no. 5, 5 Oct. 2010, pp. 714–727, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3017674/, https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2010.171.
- Carter, Sharayah, et al. “Effect of Intermittent Compared with Continuous Energy Restricted Diet on Glycemic Control in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes.” JAMA Network Open, vol. 1, no. 3, 20 July 2018, p. e180756, jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2688344, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.0756.
- Carter, S., et al. “The Effects of Intermittent Compared to Continuous Energy Restriction on Glycaemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes; a Pragmatic Pilot Trial.” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, vol. 122, Dec. 2016, pp. 106–112, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2016.10.010.
- Carter, S., et al. “The Effect of Intermittent Compared with Continuous Energy Restriction on Glycaemic Control in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: 24-Month Follow-up of a Randomised Noninferiority Trial.” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, vol. 151, May 2019, pp. 11–19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2019.03.022.
- Bergamini, Ettore, et al. “The Role of Autophagy in Aging: Its Essential Part in the Anti-Aging Mechanism of Caloric Restriction.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 1114, 1 Oct. 2007, pp. 69–78, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17934054, https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1396.020. Accessed 30 Apr. 2020.
- Shabkhizan, Roya, et al. “The Beneficial and Adverse Effects of Autophagic Response to Caloric Restriction and Fasting.” Advances in Nutrition, vol. 14, no. 5, 30 July 2023, pp. 1211–1225, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10509423/, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advnut.2023.07.006.
- Bagherniya, Mohammad, et al. “The Effect of Fasting or Calorie Restriction on Autophagy Induction: A Review of the Literature.” Ageing Research Reviews, vol. 47, Nov. 2018, pp. 183–197, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2018.08.004.
- Yang, Yi, and Lihui Zhang. “The Effects of Caloric Restriction and Its Mimetics in Alzheimer’s Disease through Autophagy Pathways.” Food & Function, vol. 11, no. 2, 2020, pp. 1211–1224, https://doi.org/10.1039/c9fo02611h. Accessed 11 May 2020.
- Pak, Heidi H., et al. “Fasting Drives the Metabolic, Molecular and Geroprotective Effects of a Calorie-Restricted Diet in Mice.” Nature Metabolism, vol. 3, no. 10, 1 Oct. 2021, pp. 1327–1341, www.nature.com/articles/s42255-021-00466-9#:~:text=Our%20results%20shed%20new%20light, https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-021-00466-9. Accessed 6 Jan. 2022.
- J. Mitchell, Sarah , et al. Daily Fasting Improves Health and Survival in Male Mice Independent of Diet Composition and Calories. 18 Sept. 2018, pp. P221-228.E3, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2018.08.011.
- Brandhorst, Sebastian , et al. A Periodic Diet That Mimics Fasting Promotes Multi-System Regeneration, Enhanced Cognitive Performance, and Healthspan. 18 June 2015, pp. P86-99, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2015.05.012.
- Botella, Javier, et al. “Exercise and Training Regulation of Autophagy Markers in Human and Rat Skeletal Muscle.” International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 23, no. 5, 27 Feb. 2022, p. 2619, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23052619. Accessed 7 Nov. 2022.
- Brandt, Nina, et al. “Exercise and Exercise Training‐Induced Increase in Autophagy Markers in Human Skeletal Muscle.” Physiological Reports, vol. 6, no. 7, 6 Apr. 2018, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5889490/, https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.13651. Accessed 31 May 2021.
- Escobar, Kurt A., et al. “Autophagy and Aging: Maintaining the Proteome through Exercise and Caloric Restriction.” Aging Cell, vol. 18, no. 1, 15 Nov. 2018, p. e12876, https://doi.org/10.1111/acel.12876. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020.
- Conde-Pipó, Javier, et al. “Intermittent Fasting: Does It Affect Sports Performance? A Systematic Review.” Nutrients, vol. 16, no. 1, 4 Jan. 2024, pp. 168–168, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10780856/, https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16010168.
- Parr, Evelyn B, et al. “Eight‐Hour Time‐Restricted Eating Does Not Lower Daily Myofibrillar Protein Synthesis Rates: A Randomized Control Trial.” Obesity, vol. 31, no. S1, 22 Dec. 2022, pp. 116–126, https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.23637. Accessed 30 Aug. 2023.
- Nair, K S, et al. “Leucine, Glucose, and Energy Metabolism after 3 Days of Fasting in Healthy Human Subjects.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 46, no. 4, 1 Oct. 1987, pp. 557–562, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3661473-leucine-glucose-and-energy-metabolism-after-3-days-of-fasting-in-healthy-human-subjects/, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/46.4.557. Accessed 22 Dec. 2019.
- Zauner, C, et al. “Resting Energy Expenditure in Short-Term Starvation Is Increased as a Result of an Increase in Serum Norepinephrine.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 71, no. 6, 2000, pp. 1511–5, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10837292, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/71.6.1511.
- E Owen, Oliver , et al. Protein, Fat, and Carbohydrate Requirements during Starvation: Anaplerosis and Cataplerosis. July 1998, pp. P12-34, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/68.1.12.
- Lee, Christine G., et al. “Mortality Risk in Older Men Associated with Changes in Weight, Lean Mass, and Fat Mass.” Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, vol. 59, no. 2, Feb. 2011, pp. 233–240, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.03245.x. Accessed 5 Mar. 2021.
